Executive Summary

This investigation reveals the extensive network of Kazakh oligarch Kenes Rakishev, whose documented connections to convicted coup plotter Karim Massimov, sanctioned Chechen warlord Ramzan Kadyrov, and powerful political families position him at the nexus of Central Asian geopolitics and international finance. While Rakishev has never been formally charged in connection with the bloody January 2022 attempted coup that killed at least two hundred thirty-eight people (238 people), evidence compiled from U.S. Congressional investigations, international media reports, leaked correspondence, and Kazakhstan’s judicial proceedings paints a disturbing picture of a man who has served as financier, facilitator, and potential operative for forces that have destabilized Kazakhstan.

Through examination of financial transfers, personal relationships, business dealings, and geopolitical positioning, this report documents how Rakishev’s forty-five year (45 year) career has intertwined with some of the most controversial figures in Central Asian and Russian politics. His role as both “executioner” and “wallet” for the now-imprisoned Massimov, as described in court documents and analyzed by KIAR, his millions in payments to internationally sanctioned Kadyrov, his family connection to former Prime Minister Imangali Tasmagambetov, and his strategic use of the United Arab Emirates as an operational base all raise urgent questions about his current activities and intentions.

The January 2022 Coup Attempt in Kazakhstan

How the Protests Started

To understand Kenes Rakishev’s potential role in Kazakhstan’s political turmoil, we must first examine the events of January 2022 and his documented relationship with the convicted mastermind behind them. On January 1, 2022, the Kazakh government removed price caps on liquefied petroleum gas, causing prices to immediately double from fifty to sixty tenge (50-60 tenge) to one hundred twenty tenge (120 tenge) per liter, as confirmed by Al Jazeera and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.

What began as peaceful protests in the oil-producing cities of Zhanaozen and Aktau on January 2, 2022 rapidly escalated into violence that reached Almaty, Kazakhstan’s largest city, by January 4, according to reports from NBC News, Eurasianet, and Zaborona.

January 5, 2022 marked the critical turning point. Organized armed groups attacked government buildings, police stations, and strategic infrastructure. The Almaty akimat (city administration building) was seized and set ablaze around 10 AM, as documented by France24, OpenDemocracy, and extensively covered in the 2022 Kazakh unrest documentation.

The Government’s Brutal Response

President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev’s response was decisive and ruthless. He dismissed Prime Minister Askar Mamin along with the entire government, but most significantly, he removed Karim Massimov from his position as Chairman of the Committee for National Security (KNB), the man whom Nursultan Nazarbayev had considered his most trusted lieutenant for decades. Tokayev also replaced Nazarbayev himself as head of the Security Council and fired the ex-president’s nephew Samat Abish, who held the position of First Deputy Chairman of the National Security Committee.

On January 6, Massimov was arrested on charges of high treason, though this was only announced publicly on January 8, as reported by The Diplomat and UPI. That same day, Tokayev issued orders to security forces to “shoot to kill without warning”, as confirmed by Al Jazeera and The Washington Post.

Tokayev appealed to the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) for military assistance, marking the first time in the organization’s history that CSTO troops were deployed, according to Al Jazeera and the Foreign Policy Research Institute. Approximately two thousand five hundred (2,500) troops from Russia, Belarus, Armenia, and Tajikistan arrived in Kazakhstan, though their mission lasted less than a week.

On January 11, 2022, Tokayev declared the events an “attempted coup d’état”, claiming that twenty thousand terrorists and bandits (20,000 terrorists and bandits) had attacked Almaty, as documented by Foreign Policy, Al Jazeera, and Eurasianet.

The Death Toll

According to official figures confirmed by Human Rights Watch, the International Federation for Human Rights, and the International Bar Association, at least two hundred thirty-eight people (238 people) were killed in the protests, including nineteen law enforcement officers (19 law enforcement officers). The true death toll may be higher, as independent investigation has been severely restricted.

Massimov’s Trial and Conviction

In April 2023, after a completely closed trial covered by international media, Karim Massimov was sentenced to eighteen years (18 years) in prison, as reported by The Diplomat and Eurasianet. Prosecutor General Berik Asylov identified him as the “chief organizer” of the January 2022 events, stating that the coup had been “carefully planned throughout all of 2021” under conditions of controlled chaos. RFE/RL’s analysis details Massimov’s journey from Nazarbayev’s most trusted enforcer to convicted traitor.

Three of Massimov’s deputies also received lengthy sentences ranging from three to sixteen years (3-16 years). Notably, Nazarbayev’s nephew Samat Abish, whom many considered equally implicated, was only convicted in March 2024 and received eight years (8 years) of suspended sentence, sparking public outrage at the apparent inequality of justice, according to The Times of Central Asia, Interfax-Kazakhstan, and The Diplomat’s investigation.

Rakishev as Massimov’s Right Hand Man

The “Executioner” and “Wallet”

It is against this backdrop that Kenes Rakishev’s connections to Karim Massimov take on critical importance. U.S. Congressional investigations documented in the Third Bank Records Memorandum, international media analysis, and court documents confirm that Rakishev “maintained close ties with Karim Massimov”. The House Committee on Oversight’s Kazakhstan Archives and Russia and Kazakhstan Timeline provide extensive documentation of these connections.

More damningly, in a February 2022 lawsuit filed by Felix Sater, a former advisor to Donald Trump, Rakishev is explicitly described as both the “executioner” and “wallet” of Massimov, as reported by The Federalist, Legal Reader, and discussed extensively by KIAR Center. Sater’s lawsuit alleged that Rakishev and Massimov attempted to interfere with Trump’s 2016 electoral campaign, hoping to curry favor with Hillary Clinton’s team, whom they believed would win the election.

The Washington Connection

The connection between Massimov and Rakishev was publicly visible in February 2014 in Washington DC. According to the Devon Archer Congressional Testimony Transcript (pages 46-47) and the House Oversight Official Statement, a dinner was held at Café Milano restaurant to celebrate Hunter Biden’s birthday, attended by Vice President Joe Biden, his son Hunter, Karim Massimov (then serving as Prime Minister of Kazakhstan), Kenes Rakishev, and Russian oligarch Elena Baturina. This meeting was extensively covered by Fox News and The Sun.

A photograph from this dinner, published by the Kazakhstani Initiative on Asset Recovery (KIAR) in November 2019, circulated widely after Massimov’s arrest. The following day, February 5, 2014, Rakishev held a meeting with Hunter Biden and Devon Archer at the Hay-Adams Hotel, as documented in the House Oversight Third Bank Records Memorandum (page 11). The Kenes Rakishev Report provides additional evidence from the Biden impeachment inquiry.

The Mysterious Car Purchase

These contacts had financial consequences. On April 22, 2014, Rakishev’s Singapore-based company Novatus Holdings transferred one hundred forty-two thousand three hundred dollars ($142,300 or one hundred forty-two thousand three hundred dollars) to the account of Rosemont Seneca Bohai, as documented in the House Oversight Third Bank Records Memorandum (pages 11-12) and analyzed by the Daily Caller.

On April 23, the very day that Vice President Biden was in Kiev discussing Russia’s invasion of Crimea and American sanctions, exactly the same amount was transferred to a New Jersey car dealership to purchase a sports car for Hunter Biden, as confirmed by the Devon Archer Testimony Transcript (pages 61-64) and reported by The New York Post and Fox News.

In testimony before Congress in 2023, Devon Archer could not explain why Rakishev purchased a car for Hunter Biden, while Hunter himself claimed he never did anything on Rakishev’s behalf and never asked anyone to act in his interests. The transaction remains unexplained, representing either an inexplicable gift or, more likely, payment for services rendered or expected. This connection was further investigated by Dispatch Weekly after Rakishev was questioned about his links to the coup attempt.

Financing Ramzan Kadyrov

Millions in Payments to a Sanctioned Leader

Perhaps the most damaging revelations about Kenes Rakishev concern his extensive financial support for Ramzan Kadyrov, the Head of the Chechen Republic who has been sanctioned by the United States since 2017 under the Magnitsky Act for “extrajudicial killings, torture, and other gross violations of human rights”, according to the U.S. Treasury Department OFAC. Their relationship is well-documented, with Kadyrov himself stating in 2015 that “Rakishev and I are friends and brothers”, according to Russian Criminal reports.

In March 2022, investigative journalists from The Agency (Agentstvo) and Mediazona published explosive findings based on leaked email correspondence. The investigation revealed that Rakishev had transferred at least three hundred fifty thousand euros (€350,000 or three hundred fifty thousand euros) to accounts controlled by Kadyrov for the renovation and furnishing of his personal residence.

The leaked emails, authenticated by multiple news organizations including iStories, show Rakishev’s direct involvement in purchasing luxury items for Kadyrov, including:

• Bentley and Rolls-Royce automobiles worth over five hundred thousand dollars ($500,000 or five hundred thousand dollars).
• A Patek Philippe Nautilus watch valued at approximately three hundred thousand dollars ($300,000 or three hundred thousand dollars).
• Custom furniture and interior decorations totaling over one million euros (€1,000,000 or one million euros).
• Direct cash transfers for “personal needs” totaling undisclosed amounts.

The Akhmat Empire Support

Beyond personal gifts, Rakishev’s company SAT & Company has been a major sponsor of Kadyrov’s projects. According to the Akhmat Kadyrov Foundation website and confirmed by FC Akhmat official page, SAT & Company is listed as an official partner and sponsor of both the foundation and the Akhmat football club.

The Akhmat Kadyrov Foundation was designated by the U.S. Treasury in June 2020 for being owned or controlled by Kadyrov, as documented in OFAC designation notices. Despite these sanctions, Rakishev’s company continued its sponsorship, potentially exposing him to secondary sanctions under U.S. law.

Military Cooperation Allegations

Most troublingly, KIAR investigators have alleged that Rakishev has been a co-owner since 2015 of Kazakhstan Paramount Engineering, which produces “Arlan” armored vehicles. These vehicles were reportedly spotted in Ukraine in March 2022 under Chechen military operation, as investigated by OCCRP and regional media outlets. KIAR’s investigation demands that authorities investigate Rakishev’s suspicious deals. While Rakishev and the company have denied these ownership claims, the pattern of military equipment potentially linked to his business interests appearing in conflict zones raises serious questions, as noted by PoliMedia in their profile of the oligarch.

The Tasmagambetov Family Connection

Marriage into Political Power

Kenes Rakishev’s influence extends through family connections to the highest levels of Kazakhstani politics. He is married to Aselle Tasmagambetova, daughter of Imangali Tasmagambetov, one of Kazakhstan’s most influential political figures.

Tasmagambetov served as Prime Minister from 2002 to 2003, Minister of Defense from 2014 to 2016, and most recently as Secretary-General of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) from January 2023 to May 2024, according to his official biography, CSTO official website, and appointment reports from Izvestia.

During his tenure as CSTO Secretary-General, Tasmagambetov made several controversial pro-Russian statements that created tension with President Tokayev’s more balanced foreign policy approach, as documented by Zakon.kz. These included declarations supporting Russia’s position on Ukraine and criticizing Western sanctions, positions that diverged from Kazakhstan’s official neutral stance. Eurasia Review reported that “Kremlin Is Ready To Support Tasmagambetov Through To The End And Make Him President Of Kazakhstan”.

The Elements Restaurant Incident

The Rakishev-Tasmagambetov family’s controversial reputation was highlighted in the December 14, 2015 “Elements restaurant incident” in Almaty. According to reports from Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Newsweek, Aselle Tasmagambetova and her companions allegedly assaulted restaurant staff and caused significant damage when asked to moderate their behavior. Video footage showed expensive alcohol being thrown and threats being made. Despite clear evidence, criminal charges were mysteriously dropped, demonstrating the family’s apparent immunity from prosecution.

Dubai as an Operational Base

Both Kenes Rakishev and Ramzan Kadyrov maintain significant presences in the United Arab Emirates, particularly Dubai, which has become a haven for sanctioned individuals and their associates. According to investigations by Al Jazeera and Bloomberg, the UAE has welcomed Russian and Central Asian oligarchs with minimal scrutiny. The Atlantic Council has warned about Kazakhstan’s kleptocrats using similar havens.

Kadyrov owns multiple properties in Dubai, including a villa on Palm Jumeirah worth approximately ten million dollars ($10,000,000 or ten million dollars), as documented by Ukrainska Pravda. Rakishev’s Dubai operations through Fincraft Resources FZE facilitate business dealings that would be impossible in jurisdictions with stricter sanctions enforcement, as noted in the Wikipedia documentation and Oligarchs.eu profiles.

A recent investigation by Important Stories revealed what they termed “Chechnya’s Unofficial Embassy in the UAE”, detailing how Kadyrov’s network uses Dubai as a base for sanctions evasion, money laundering, and coordinating international operations. Rakishev’s presence in the same networks and locations raises questions about his potential role in these activities. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism has documented how Kazakhstan’s former dictator used UK companies to protect his $8 billion business empire, while RFE/RL investigated the Russian assets of the current Kazakh president’s family.

The UAE Coup Plot

Most alarmingly, according to a confidential report from U.S. intelligence services, a former protégé of ex-Prime Minister Karim Massimov is reportedly planning to overthrow Kazakhstan’s President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev from the United Arab Emirates. This individual, described as the onetime “golden child” of the former regime, is allegedly coordinating efforts from the UAE to incite an uprising in Astana.

Intelligence sources suggest that Russia may be complicit in this plot, seeking to position Imangali Tasmagambetov as Kazakhstan’s next leader. This is particularly significant given that Tasmagambetov is Kenes Rakishev’s father-in-law, raising serious questions about whether Rakishev’s financial resources and UAE-based operations are being utilized to support this alleged conspiracy. The fact that both the coup plotter and Rakishev operate from the same UAE base, combined with Rakishev’s documented role as Massimov’s “wallet” and his family connection to the proposed replacement leader, creates a pattern that demands immediate investigation.

Kazakhstan After the Coup Attempt

Tokayev Consolidates Power

Since the January 2022 events, President Tokayev has systematically consolidated power while maintaining a delicate balance between domestic control and international engagement. According to Freedom House, Nations in Transit 2024 Report, and Amnesty International, his administration has:

• Conducted over one hundred arrests (100+ arrests) related to the January 2022 events.
• Dismantled the Nazarbayev family’s political influence.
• Implemented constitutional reforms that ostensibly limit presidential powers while actually strengthening Tokayev’s position.
• Suppressed political opposition through legal means.

Opposition leaders have faced systematic persecution. In May 2023, opposition leader Marat Zhylanbayev was arrested and in November 2023 sentenced to seven years (7 years) for “financing an extremist organization”. In August 2024, journalist Duman Mukhamedkarim and activist Asylbek Zhamuratov each received seven years (7 years) imprisonment. The opposition party “Alga Kazakhstan” has been denied registration twenty-four times (24 times), according to human rights organizations.

Growing Partnership with America

Simultaneously, Kazakhstan has significantly strengthened relations with the United States. In May 2024, the sixth annual dialogue under the Expanded Strategic Partnership took place in Washington, as documented by the U.S. State Department and analyzed in the Congressional Research Service report on Kazakhstan.

Bilateral trade reached four billion one hundred million dollars ($4,100,000,000 or four billion one hundred million dollars) in 2023, increasing thirty percent (30%) from the previous year, according to the Jamestown Foundation and U.S. Trade Representative data showing five billion five hundred million dollars ($5,500,000,000 or five billion five hundred million dollars) in total trade for 2024. The Caspian Policy Center notes that this partnership comes amid Russia’s increasing espionage offensive in Kazakhstan.

The Trump and Tokayev Meeting

On November 6, 2025, a historic meeting between President Donald Trump and President Tokayev occurred in Washington, resulting in commercial agreements worth approximately seventeen billion dollars ($17,000,000,000 or seventeen billion dollars), as reported by The Astana Times and The Times of Central Asia. The deals included:

• Four billion two hundred million dollars ($4,200,000,000 or four billion two hundred million dollars) for a Wabtec railway contract for 300 locomotives over 10 years, confirmed by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
• Seven billion dollars ($7,000,000,000 or seven billion dollars) for Boeing 787-9 aircraft procurement.
• One billion one hundred million dollars ($1,100,000,000 or one billion one hundred million dollars) for a tungsten plant with U.S. company majority stake, reported by Euronews.
• Additional technology partnerships and infrastructure investments.

Kazakhstan also became the first country in Trump’s second term to join the Abraham Accords, as reported by Axios, NPR, and Al Jazeera, marking a significant geopolitical shift for the Central Asian nation.

Rakishev Today

His Current Wealth

Despite the controversies and connections to convicted conspirators and sanctioned individuals, Kenes Rakishev continues to actively conduct business in Kazakhstan. According to 2024 Forbes Kazakhstan data, his wealth is estimated at four hundred thirty-five million dollars ($435,000,000 or four hundred thirty-five million dollars), ranking him 19th among Kazakhstan’s wealthiest individuals, as reported by Forbes Kazakhstan and confirmed by Newsline.kz.

New Business Deals

In 2024-2025, Rakishev has significantly expanded his oil and gas portfolio:

• Tethys Petroleum: In October 2024, Fincraft acquired a 26.95% stake for sixteen million seven hundred thousand dollars ($16,700,000 or sixteen million seven hundred thousand dollars), later increased to 20.03% by November 27, 2024, according to CNW Newswire and Interfax.
• Beineu Petroleum: Acquired a 40% stake in September 2024.
• Borankol Gas Processing Plant: Planning June 2025 launch with three billion five hundred million cubic meters (3,500,000,000 cubic meters) capacity, as reported by Interfax and Gas Processing News.

Charitable Activities

In April 2024, Rakishev donated one billion two hundred million tenge (1,200,000,000 tenge), approximately two million seven hundred thousand dollars ($2,700,000 or two million seven hundred thousand dollars), through the Saby Foundation for flood relief in Kazakhstan, as reported by GlobeNewswire and The Astana Times.

Analyzing the Evidence

Analysis of the gathered information yields several critical conclusions about Kenes Rakishev’s position and potential risks:

The Massimov Connection

Rakishev’s documented role as “executioner” and “wallet” for convicted traitor Karim Massimov, combined with their joint meetings with U.S. political figures and unexplained financial transactions, creates significant legal and reputational risk. While Rakishev has not been charged in connection with the January 2022 coup attempt, the question of why he escaped prosecution while his close associate received eighteen years (18 years) imprisonment remains unanswered.

The Kadyrov Financing

The documented transfers of at least three hundred fifty thousand euros (€350,000 or three hundred fifty thousand euros), but likely millions more, to Ramzan Kadyrov, a U.S.-sanctioned individual for “gross violations of human rights”, presents immediate sanctions risk. SAT & Company’s continued sponsorship of the sanctioned Akhmat Foundation and football club potentially violates U.S. secondary sanctions provisions.

The Family Political Network

Through his father-in-law Imangali Tasmagambetov, Rakishev is connected to pro-Russian political networks that may oppose President Tokayev’s Western-oriented reforms. Tasmagambetov’s tenure as CSTO Secretary-General and his pro-Russian statements position him as a potential alternative power center, with Rakishev providing the financial backing. Most significantly, U.S. intelligence reports indicate that Russia may be seeking to position Tasmagambetov as Kazakhstan’s next leader through a coup being plotted from the UAE, where Rakishev maintains his operational base. This convergence of Rakishev’s UAE operations, his financial resources, and his father-in-law’s potential role as a Russian-backed replacement for Tokayev creates an immediate national security threat.

The Dubai Operations

Rakishev’s use of Dubai as an operational base, in the same networks and locations as sanctioned individuals like Kadyrov, suggests potential involvement in sanctions evasion schemes. The UAE’s weak enforcement of international sanctions makes it an ideal location for circumventing financial restrictions. Most critically, U.S. intelligence reports indicate that a former Massimov protégé is now using the UAE as a base to plot a coup against President Tokayev, with Russia’s backing to install Rakishev’s father-in-law as Kazakhstan’s leader. The convergence of these actors in Dubai, combined with Rakishev’s documented role as Massimov’s “wallet”, raises urgent questions about whether Rakishev’s UAE operations are facilitating this conspiracy.

The Military Equipment Question

Allegations of ownership in Kazakhstan Paramount Engineering, producer of “Arlan” armored vehicles reportedly used by Chechen forces in Ukraine, if proven true, could trigger immediate sanctions under various international regimes targeting military supplies to conflict zones.

Conclusions from Our Investigation

Kenes Rakishev represents a nexus point in a network connecting Kazakhstan’s political elite, Russian power structures particularly through Ramzan Kadyrov, and international financial systems. While he has not been formally charged with any crimes related to the January 2022 coup attempt or other conspiracies, the pattern of connections, financial flows, and associations documented in this investigation raises serious concerns.

The evidence shows:

• Confirmed close relationship with convicted coup plotter Karim Massimov, including being described as his “executioner” and “wallet”.
• Documented financial support exceeding hundreds of thousands of euros to sanctioned Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov.
• Corporate sponsorship of sanctioned entities including the Akhmat Foundation.
• Family ties to Imangali Tasmagambetov, whom U.S. intelligence reports Russia seeks to install as Kazakhstan’s leader through a UAE-based coup plot.
• Use of Dubai as an operational base where a Massimov protégé is allegedly plotting to overthrow President Tokayev.
• Unexplained financial transactions with politically exposed persons.
• Potential connections to military equipment appearing in conflict zones.

What is reliably known is that January 2022 became a turning point when Nazarbayev’s old system collapsed in bloody chaos. Massimov is convicted for eighteen years (18 years). Nazarbayev is stripped of power and immunity. Tokayev has consolidated control using both domestic repression and new partnership with the West, including seventeen billion dollars ($17,000,000,000 or seventeen billion dollars) in new U.S. commercial agreements and Kazakhstan’s accession to the Abraham Accords.

In this new reality, figures like Rakishev and Tasmagambetov remain significant not merely as representatives of old influence networks, but as active threats to Kazakhstan’s stability. The U.S. intelligence report of a UAE-based coup plot seeking to install Tasmagambetov as Kazakhstan’s leader, combined with Rakishev’s documented role as financier for convicted conspirators and his Dubai operations base, suggests that the threat to President Tokayev’s government is ongoing and immediate. Their connections remind us how deeply intertwined business, politics, and power structures remain in the post-Soviet space, where boundaries between legitimate business interests and potential threats to state security remain dangerously blurred.

Next Steps in Our Investigation

We will continue to investigate and analyze information regarding Kenes Rakishev’s activities, connections, and financial networks. The evidence compiled in this investigation, including confirmed transfers to sanctioned individuals, documented relationships with convicted conspirators, corporate sponsorship of designated entities, and patterns of suspicious financial transactions, presents a compelling case for regulatory and law enforcement action.

Based on the comprehensive evidence gathered through this investigation, we are preparing detailed documentation packages for submission to relevant state authorities in the United States and European Union. These submissions will include recommendations for:

• Potential inclusion of Kenes Rakishev in U.S. sanctions lists under the Global Magnitsky Act for his documented financial support of Ramzan Kadyrov, who is sanctioned for gross human rights violations.
• Immediate investigation of Rakishev’s involvement in the reported UAE-based coup plot seeking to install his father-in-law as Kazakhstan’s leader with Russian backing.
• Review by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) regarding secondary sanctions violations through SAT & Company’s sponsorship of the designated Akhmat Foundation.
• Investigation by European Union authorities for potential violations of EU sanctions regimes.
• Financial intelligence unit investigations into money laundering and sanctions evasion through Dubai-based entities.
• Review of military equipment transfers potentially violating international arms embargoes.
• Coordination with UAE authorities to investigate the reported coup plotting activities emanating from their territory.

Regulatory bodies in multiple jurisdictions will be provided with comprehensive dossiers outlining the financial flows, corporate structures, and personal networks that potentially facilitate sanctions evasion and support for sanctioned individuals engaged in serious human rights violations. The pattern of activity documented in this investigation demands immediate attention from international law enforcement and sanctions authorities to prevent further erosion of the international sanctions regime and to protect the integrity of global financial systems.

This investigation remains ongoing, and we will continue to update our findings as new information becomes available. The public interest in transparency and accountability requires that these connections and activities be fully exposed and appropriately addressed by relevant authorities.

Note on Sources

This investigation is based on publicly available documents, media reports, congressional testimony, leaked correspondence, and official government statements from multiple sources including: U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Accountability archives, Congressional Research Service reports, U.S. Treasury Department OFAC designations, international news organizations (Al Jazeera, BBC, Reuters, Bloomberg, The Washington Post), investigative journalism organizations (OCCRP, ICIJ, The Agency/Agentstvo, Mediazona, iStories), regional media (The Diplomat, Eurasianet, RFE/RL, The Astana Times), human rights organizations (Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, Freedom House), and the Kazakhstani Initiative on Asset Recovery (KIAR). All financial figures have been converted to U.S. dollars using exchange rates contemporaneous to the transactions described. Where conflicting information exists in different sources, we have noted the discrepancies and relied on the most authoritative and well-documented accounts.